What Are The Impacts Of An Earthquake Environmental Sciences Essay

What Are The Impacts Of An seism Environmental Sciences EssayTectonic temblor is the most common form of quake that occurs in various move of the world. The of import develop for triggering an seism is due to the movement of different tectonic plates. The surface of earth is do up of a flake of rigid parts called tectonic plates and is in continuous movement with each other. These plate movements argon driven by forces deep within the earth. There are two emblems of tectonic seisms they are (a) Inter plate temblors or Plate boundary earthquakes and (b) Intra plate earthquake or Mid Plate earthquakes ASC India webInter plate earthquakesThis type of earthquake occurs along the narrow zones that follows the boundaries of the tectonic plate. This type of earthquake is caused by the interaction of the two or more tectonic plates. There are two prominent bands of Inter-Plate boundaries in the world. One band begins from the western Mediterranean covering southern Europe, North Africa and extending through the Middle East and ending in the Himalayas. The second band is in the form of a circle around the Pacific Rim, which includes Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, Kamchatka in Russia, south pacific island nations and New Zealand in the west. The east part of the circle includes Alaska, California, Pacific, North-West parts of unite States, Western Canada, Central America, South Ameri stand countries of Colombia, Peru, Chile, and Ecuador. This circum pacific band is also known as the Ring of Fire ASC IndiaIntra plate earthquakesThis type of earthquake occurs far from the plate boundaries and this type of earthquakes are less frequent compare to the inter plate earthquake. This type of earthquakes are also capable of releasing the similar amount of energy that is released during the inter plate earthquake and this type of earthquakes are also capable of causing destruction and equipment casualty to the society and people. The energy released from this type o f earthquake contributes only 1% of the annual unstable energy released globally. This type of earthquakes occur in Indian peninsula, central Indian Ocean, Central and Eastern United States, Eastern Canada, northern Europe, Australia, Brazil, Hawaii and in the Western parts of Africa. ASC India2.2.2 Vol targetic EarthquakeVolcanic earthquakes are caused due to the volcanic activity which can cause threats like deformation of design, cracking of ground and damage to buildings and other manmade structures.2.2.3 Manmade Earthquake (Explosion, Collapse, Boring earth)2.3 General Impacts of earthquake2.3 Chapter Discussion and finales3 Resilience of Buildings3.1 Introduction3.2 assessment of Building3.3 Resilience to Structural Components of a Building3.4 Improvisation in a Building3.5 Chapter Discussions and Conclusions4. Earthquake Hazard in India4.1 IntroductionIndia is the seventh largest rural knowledge domain in the world covering the plain of about 3,287,240Km2 (Approx.) wit h the population of about 1.1 billion and it has a large area of its land which are likely to be affected by wide range of probable utmost unstable intensities. In the past 100 years the country was affected by galore(postnominal) earthquakes in different parts, which were responsible for the loss of many lives, buildings and other man-made structures. Among the number of earthquakes that affected the country, the shallow earthquake had a order of order of magnitude of M=5.0 or more on the Richter scale, and the catastrophic earthquake that has occurred in the past had a magnitude of M=8.0 or more which struck in the areas like Kutch, Andaman Island and at any rate the Himalayas.This chapter discusses about damaging earthquakes that occurred in India and the main unstable percentages in India. The different seismic regions are explained by illustrating the past earthquakes that occurred and its impact in the society.4.2 Earthquake occurrences in India and the NeighborhoodIn th e past 100 hundred years India has suffered four great earthquakes of magnitude 8.5 or more and imposing many causalities and economic loss. The earthquake which had the largest magnitude in India was recorded as M=8.7 which had its epicenter in Shillong plateau that took place in the year 1897. The other notable earthquake to reference is earthquake that took place in Sadiya region with a magnitude of M=8.6 which was so powerful that it even changed the courses of the rivers and disturbed the ground level. The below table 1 shows the list of damaging earthquakes that has occurred in India. It gives general information about the earthquake like the affected area of the earthquake, date and time of earthquake, affected areas location in latitude and longitude, magnitude of the earthquake and the number of deaths.Date(ddmmyyyy)AreaTime in ISTLatitude in DegreesLongitude in DegreesMagnitudeMDeaths(Approximate value)16.01.1819Gujarat (Kutch)Mid iniquity8.0150026.08.1833Bihar-Nepal27.58 6.57.7150012.06.1897Assam (Shillong)163625.991.08.7160008.02.1900Kerala (Palghat)031110.776.76.0Nil04.04.1905Himachal Pradesh (Kangra)062032.576.58.02000003.07.1930Assam (Dhubri)023325.890.27.1Many15.01.1934Bihar-Nepal141326.686.88.31400026.05.1941Andaman12.492.58Many23.10.1943Assam225326.894.07.215-08-1950Assam193928.796.68.6150021.07.1956Gujarat (Anjar)210223.370.07.011528.10.1958Uttar Pradesh (Kapkote)30.080.06.3Many27.08.1960Delhi212828.377.46.002.09.1963Kashmir (Badgam)070433.974.75.5In Hundreds27.07.1966Western Nepal29.581.06.315.08.1966Uttar Pradesh(Moradabad)28.079.05.302.07.1967Nicobar9.093.46.211.12.1967Maharashtra (Koyna)042117.473.76.520013.04.1970Andhra Pradesh (Bhadra-chalam)17.680.66.523.03.1970Gujarat (Broach)072321.772.95.73019.01.1975Himachal Pradesh32.578.46.521.08.1988Bihar Nepal043926.7686.626.6100320.10.1991Uttar Pradesh (Uttar Kashi)025330.7578.866.671530.09.1993Maharashtra (Killari)035518.0776.626.3792822.05.1997Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur)042323.180.16.03829.0 5.1999Uttar Pradesh (Chamoli)003530.379.566.56326.01.2001Gujarat (Kachchh or Bhuj)084623.669.87.71380508.10.2005Jammu Kashmir (Kashmir)092034.573.67.6India-1400Pakistan occupied Kashmir (POK)-73726Table 1- Some Better Known damaging Earthquakes in India IITK, book4.3 Main unstable RegionsThe main seismic regions in India are divided into 7 seismic regions they areKashmir and Western HimalayasCentral Himalayas (including Nepal Himalayas)Northeast IndiaIndo-Gangetic handbasin and RajasthanCambay and the Rann of KutchPeninsular IndiaAndaman and Nicobar islands.These seismic regions are summarized below(1) Kashmir and Western HimalayasThis region covers the states of Jammu Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and sub band parts of Punjab. This area has suffered a history of 180 earthquakes of magnitude M=5 or more. Kangra earthquake of April 4, 1905 had a utmost intensities of magnitude M=8.0, and it caused a large scale destruction in the area and resulted in loss of 20,000 lives, which are primarily due to the collapse of structures made of brick, stone and earthen materials. Other notable damaging earthquakes in this region are the Budgam earthquake of September 2, 1963, Anantnag earthquake of February 20, 1987, Dharmshala earthquake of April 26, 1986 and Kashmir earthquake of October 8, 2005. During the Kashmir earthquake more than 75,000 lives are lost due to the collapse of stone buildings.(2) Central HimalayasThis region covers the mountain and sub mountain regions of Uttar Pradesh, sub mountain regions of Bihar and Nepal. This area has experienced more than 135 earthquakes of magnitude M=5 or more and they are mostly occurred in the eastern and western parts. The eastern side of this region has experienced a very uplifted seismicity and the earthquake to mention in this region is Bihar-Nepal earthquake occurred on January 15, 1934 which had a magnitude of M= 8.4 and destroyed thousands of homes and 13,000 people were killed in this earthquake. The western sid e of this region has experienced earthquakes of magnitude from M=6 and the maximum magnitude of M=7.5 was recorded during the Dharchula earthquake in 1916. The central side of this area has not experienced any earthquakes. The most recent earthquake occurred in the central Himalaya is on August 20, 1988 with the magnitude of M=6.7 and it affected northern parts of Bihar and eastern Nepal.(3) North East IndiaThis region covers the entire Indian Territory to the east of north Bengal. This seismic region is comprises of the neighboring countries like Myanmar (Burma) and Bhutan. This region is one of the most severe seismic regions in the world, which has a history of experiencing 520 earthquakes of magnitude M=5, among which 24 earthquakes had magnitude of M=7 or more. The largest earthquake in this region is Assam earthquake of 1897 which had a magnitude of M=8.7 and is the largest earthquake ever recorded in this region. The other earthquake which has similar magnitude to Assam earth quake is the Sadiya earthquake of 1950 which had a magnitude of M=8.6. It is the only earthquake which has been rarely repeated in the world. As these earthquakes had a high magnitude it resulted in change of topographical levels, but the economic loss and loss of life was less as the population in 1897 was less and in 1950 the earthquake occurred in a less populated area. Other reasons for reduced damage of these earthquakes is that the type of construction in Assam was different to the present situation, construction during that stage had a practice of using bamboo posts and Ekra (Wattle and Daub) walling was light and strong which remained undamaged during these earthquakes. The present type of construction is different from the traditional Assam type construction, where the construction materials are changed bamboo and Ekra to bricks and stones, non-engineered buildings start increased with the increase in population. As a result there is a possibility for more damages to life and property during future earthquakes.(4) Indo Gangetic Basin and RajasthanThis region covers Rajasthan, Haryana, plains of Punjab, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal situated to north of the Vindhyas. This area has suffered from 110 earthquakes of magnitude of M=5 or greater are known to occur in this region. close to of the seismic activities have occurred on the Moradabad faults, Lucknow, Patna faults and the Sohna fault near Delhi. The maximum seismic activity occurred in this area is recorded as M=6.7, which shows that this is a condition to minor seismic zone.(5) Cambay and the Rann of KutchThis region is comparatively smaller than the other regions separate here, but this region has suffered from one of the worst earthquakes in India. This region has suffered from 20 earthquakes of minimum magnitude as M=5.0 and two other earthquakes of magnitude M= 7.0 and M=8.0 this earthquake occurred in Rann of Kutch in the year 1819 by killing 2000 people and destroying the town of Bhu j. Similarly the city of Anjar was also destroyed by an earthquake in 1956. But the most destructive earthquake of this area is the recent Kachchh earthquake in January 26, 2001, which had a magnitude of M=7.7 and it resulted in the loss of 14,000 people, destroying about 230,000 buildings and damaging more than 800,000 buildings. Many reinforced concrete spue buildings were destroyed due to the impact of this earthquake. The main reason for the break-danceure of these buildings is due to bad design and construction practice. This region is considered to be severe to moderate seismic region.(6) Peninsular India and Lakshadweep islandsThis region is more stable compared to other region as this region is a pre Cambrian shield and it does not have any adjoining plate boundaries. The type earthquakes occurred here are Intra plate earthquake. This region has experienced 32 earthquakes with average magnitude M= 5.0 and maximum magnitude of M=6.5. The maximum magnitude was recorded duri ng the Koyna earthquake of 1967. Most destroying earthquake in this region is the Marathwada earthquake of M=6.4 occurred in the year 1993 which took the lives of 8000 people. As this region has experienced very less seismic activity, this area is considered to be less to moderate seismic region.(7) The Andaman Nicobar IslandThis region is highly seismic and has suffered from 190 earthquakes with average magnitude of M=5.0 and the maximum magnitude of M=8.1. The giant earthquake of M=8.1 occurred in the year 1941 and caused severe damages to the main town of Port Blair by damaging the civilised and military installations. This area was indirectly affected during the Sumatra earthquake on December 24, 2004 which had a magnitude of M=9.3 and was the cause for the tsunami. The use of unreinforced masonry in this area is increase with the rise in population, from which it is evident that the risk of more damages in the future events.4.4 The Seismic Hazard Zoning routineThe seismic zo ning represent of India has been standardized by the Bureau of Indian Standards which is given in the earthquake design resistant code of India (IS 1893-Part 1, 2002, fig 2). According to this seismic zoning function, the seismic zones have been revised from its previous map which had 5 or 6 zones to 4 zones based on the records of seismic activity in India. The 4 seismic zones are classified on the expected probable intensities on 12 point Modified Mercalli intensity scale or Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale (MSK). The four seismic zones are zone 2, 3, 4 and 5. The seismic zoning map of India is given below which shows the different seismic zones in India. Jalandhar, bookFigure Seismic Zoning Map of IndiaImage Courtesy http//www.mausam.gov.in/WEBIMD/images/zone_map.jpgZone 2This zone has the least amount of seismic activity experienced in India and this zone is classified as the embarrassed Damage Risk Zone. This zone is expected to have probable occurrence of MSK VI or less. The even ground acceleration in this zone is 0.1 g, and this chemical element is considered by the Engineers in the morphological designing of earthquake resistant structures. Zone 2 seismic area in India is less compared to other zones. Jalandhar, relief, seismo, bookZone 3This zone has moderate amount of seismicity and this zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone. This zone is expected to have probable occurrence of MSK VII. The horizontal ground acceleration in this zone is 0.16 g or 10-20 % of gravitational acceleration. This zone covers the cities like Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Surat, Mumbai, Agra, Bhiwandi, Nasik, Kanpur Pune, Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Asansol, Kochi Kolkata, Varanasi, Bareilly, Lucknow, Indore, Jabalpur, Vijayawada, Dhanbad, Chennai, Coimbatore, Mangalore, Kozhikode, Trivandrum, and Andaman Nicobar islands. Jalandhar, relief, seismo, bookZone 4This zone has high seismicity and this zone is classified as higher(prenominal) Damage Risk Zone. T his zone is expected to have probable occurrence of MSK VIII. The horizontal ground acceleration in this zone is 0.24 g or 20-30% of gravitational acceleration. This zone This zone covers the cities like Dehradun, New Delhi, Yamuna Nagar, Patna, Meerut, Jammu, Amritsar, and Jalandhar. Jalandhar, relief, seismo, bookZone 5This zone has highest seismicity in India and this zone is classified as Very High Damage Risk Zone. This zone is expected to have probable occurrence of MSK IX or more. In this zone the area which has trap or basaltic rock are more prone to earthquakes. The horizontal ground acceleration in this zone is 0.36 or 30-40 % of gravitational acceleration and this is the peak value of gravitational attraction that is experienced during a Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE). This covers cities like Guwahati and Srinagar. Punjab, Kashmir, western Himalayas, central Himalayas, Northeast India and Rann of Kutch also fall in this zone. Jalandhar, relief, seismo, bookSeismicity Map of IndiaSeismicity map gives the relative frequency and distribution of earthquakes in a given zone. Below is the seismicity map of India, it clear shows the distribution of earthquakes in India and the neighborhood countries. The green stars represents the areas which has suffered from earthquakes of magnitude M=5.0 to 5.9, blue stars represent the areas which has suffered from earthquakes of magnitude of M=6.0 to 6.9, pink stars represent the areas which has suffered from earthquakes of magnitude M= 7.0 to 7.9, red stars represent the areas which had suffered from earthquakes of magnitude M= 8.0 to 8.9., and yellow stars represent the areas suffered from earthquakes of magnitude M= 9.0 or above.CUsersSalahudeenDesktopseismicity_map.jpgFigure Seismicity Map of India http//www.mausam.gov.in/WEBIMD/images/seismicity_map.jpg4.5 Damaging Effects of EarthquakeEarthquakes can cause damage to the society and indirectly affect the providence of the country. Earthquakes are the greates t destroyers of man-made structures like buildings, power plants, bridges, dams etc Generally when a person thinks about the effects of an earthquake, ground shaking comes to a persons mind, but ground shaking is not the only effects of an earthquake there are possibilities for other natural hazards like landslides, liquefaction, and tsunamis. These hazards are directly related to earthquake, as they are caused due to direct impact of an earthquake. Other possible hazards are cracking of dam walls which can cause leakage of water and causing flood, falling of electricity poles can cause live wires to be exposed and can trigger a plague, damage of underground gas pipelines and can trigger a fire, damage of underground water pipelines this could be difficult in case of controlling fire. UWIE seismicSome of the possible damaging effects of an earthquake are shown in the flow sheet below (fig 3). An earthquake can cause two events like surface rupture or seismic waftures. The surfa ce of the earth ruptures during an earthquake, which shifts the surface and causes the building to collapse, resulting in personal injury or loss of life and loss of properties. If the surface rupture takes place in the marine it produces a sea wave/tsunami and can cause flooding in the nearby coastal areas. Seismic waves created as a result of earthquake causes the surface of earth to shift. place shifts can go away to dynamic settlement of rock wedge or soil liquefaction and cause damages to manmade structures. Surface shifts can cause slope movements on the path of river and creating a barrier to form a natural dam and cause flooding in the nearby area. Surface shifts can directly affect the buildings and structures and cause fire or flood. It is clear that earthquake does not kill people, other events which are triggered due to earthquake only kills, so measures should be taken to withstand or overcome the following events of an earthquake. BookTidal Waves or TsunamiFigure 3 Flow chart of damaging effects of an earthquake bookImpact on Man/ companionshipPersonal injuryLoss of belongingsPsychological effectsSociological effectsOverall earthquake effectsFloodsNon Structural DamageCollapse of structural components / fire/ flood (e.g. by dam break)Damage to building structuresNatural river DammingDamage to building structuresSlope MovementPrimary effectsNear Surface put forwardNear Surface ShiftDynamic Settlement, Soil LiquefactionCoastal FloodsDamage to building structuresNear Surface ShiftNear Surface ShiftNear Surface ShiftSeismic WavesSurface RuptureEarthquake of Magnitude M = 5- 8.7Geologic effects of Ground ShakingDuring an earthquake a person can observe the shaking of the ground, the shaking duration depends on the size of the earthquake i.e. its magnitude, distance from epicenter, amplitude, location and its regional geology. Shaking of ground can cause the structure to collapse, shaking of ground also depends on the type of soil, if the soil is soft and loose the shaking will be more, (see fig.4) if the soil is tight fitting and compactly packed the shaking will be less. It is important to make sure that the structures are built on hard ground or on the hard rock. If there is a need to build structure on the soft surface, it has to be compacted before constructing. The epicenter of an earthquake also depends on the duration of shaking, nearer the epicenter more the duration of shaking. Ground shaking also depends on the amplitude amplitude will be high with increase in the size of the earthquake. GeologyCUsersSalahudeenDesktopCapture3.JPGFigure Regional Geology of Shaking geologyFigure LandslidesLandslides and liquefactionCUsersSalahudeenDesktoplandslide.JPGLandslides are defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth heap a slope due to gravity, they can occur on any terrain with suitable conditions of soil, moisture, and the angle of slope. Landslides can be triggered by rains, floods, earthquakes, volcanoes , and other man made causes like grading, terrain cutting and filling etc Manmade structures are not the only affected due to stress of the seismic waves, natural structures like mountain slopes and hillsides also fail due to the stress of the seismic waves. In India the most vulnerable regions for landslides are Himalayas and Western Ghats. Landslides 1, 2In the below fig.5 is a graph showing the cumulative number of fatalities since September 2002 in India and China. The number of deaths caused due to the earthquake induced landslides is clearly shown which approximates 40,000 fatalities during both the Kashmir earthquake and Wenchuan earthquake. LandslidesTsunamisFigure Tsunami InitiationTsunami is a Japanese term that means view as wave, they are generally confused with tidal waves but they both are different. Tsunamis are caused by a sudden vertical offset in the ocean floor triggered by underwater earthquakes, undersea landslides and undersea volcanic deformation. The sudden offset of the ocean floor changes the elevation of the ocean and initiates a water wave that travels outward from the region of sea-floor disruption which is shown in fig 6.CUsersSalahudeenDesktoptsu 3.pngIn 26 December, 2004, a tsunami wave hit the countries situated around the Bay of Bengal. The tsunami wave was triggered by an earthquake of magnitude M=8.9 which had its epicenter in the west coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. The damage of this tsunami in India almost affected 876 villages in south India with an area of 4000 hectares and it affected population of 3.5 million. TsunamiIt is clear that the number of people died as a result of an earthquake is less when compared to the deaths caused by the triggering events following an earthquake.4.6 Earthquake Prediction4.7 Earthquake Hazard risk to Urban Areas4.8 Chapter Discussions and Conclusions5. Earthquake Resistant Structure5.1 Introduction5.2 Classification of Seismic Designs5.3 Comparison of Seismic practices in India and Abro ad5.4 Chapter Discussion and Conclusion6. Case Study Bhuj Earthquake6.1 Introduction and Methodology6.1.1Case Study as Research Methodology6.1.2 Case Study Design6.2 Damage Assessment6.3 Factors influenced the earthquake damage6.3.1 Type of Building Construction6.3.2Quality of materials6.3.3 Liquefaction6.4 Chapter Discussion and Conclusion7. Discussions8. Conclusion